Indian History

India’s history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization.

Indian History in Short

The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread through in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from 3300 BC to 1300 BC. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BC and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas.

In the fifth century, large parts of India were united under Ashoka. He also converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread to other parts of the Asia. In the reign of Mauryas, Hinduism took shape fundamentally.

In the eight century Islam came to India and by the 11th century it firmly established itself in India. The North Indian dynasties of the Lodhis, Tughlaqs, and numerous others, whose remains are visible in Delhi and scattered elsewhere around North India, were finally succeeded by the Mughal empire, under which India once again achieved a large measure of political unity.

The European presence in India date to the seventeenth century, and it is in the latter part of this century that the Mughal empire began to disintegrate, paving the way for regional states.

During the first half of the 20th century, a natiowide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan.


The History of India can be broadly divided into following three categories.

Ancient India :- Starting from Harappa civilization in 3000 BC Till Chola Dynasty in 985 AD

Medeval India :- Starting from C=Ghazni Sacks Somnath Temple in 1026 AD to Siraj-ud-daulah Capture Calcutta in 1756 AD

Modern India  :- Starting from Battle of Plassy in 1757 till Partition of India and Independence on 15 Aug 1947.

Ancient India

The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north by the world's largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world.
The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India's centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic and economic importance.
India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population.
In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-

1. Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.
2. Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India
3. Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India
4. Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa
5. Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa

The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.
The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotus observed that "of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population."

Points to Remember

Father Hameleden was the first to master Sanskrit language and compile a grammer book. Father Coeurdoux recognised the kinship of Sanskrit and languages of Europe in 1767. Alexander Hamilton (1762-1824), a French, was the first person to teach Sanskrit in Europe. Freidrich Schlegel was the first German Sanskritist. Franz Bopp (1791-1867) succeded in reconstructing the common ancestor of classical languages of Europe and Sanskrit in 1816. Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900) edited the translation of Rig Veda Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth produced the Sanskrit-German dictionary known as the St-Petersburg Lexicon James Prinsep successfully interpreted for the first time the earliest Brahmi script in 1837. He was able to read the edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. William Jones translated in 1789 Kalidasa's masterpiece Abhijnana-Shakuntalam into English. Wilkins translated the Bhagwat Gita into English in 1785.

Medieval Indian History

Following are some of the Sources of Medieval Indian History

• Tajur Masir - Hassan Nizami : This is the first historical narrative of which deals with the beginning of the Muslim rule in India. The author gives in detail the military exploits of Qutobuddin Aibek from 1192 to 1206. The author does not mention Aram Shah but describes the events of Iltutmish's regin up to 1217.

• Tabquat i Narisi - Minhajus Siraj : Siraj produced an elaborate history of the Islamic world in twenty-three compact volumes or books. He starts with the account of the earlier prophets and aneestors of Mohammad.

• Each of his subsequent books is devoted to the history of the caliphs and Muslim rulers of various countries and periods.

• Works of Amir Kusrau : Amir Khusrau was the first and by far the most prominent representive of Indo-Muslim culture of early medieval India. His major works include Qiran us Sa'adain, Miftahed Futuh, Khazainul Futuh, Dewal Rani, Khisly Khani, Nuh Sipir and Tughluq Nama. Quiran us Sa'adain gives an eye-witness account of the meeting that took place in Oudh between Sultan Kaigubad and his father Bughra Kha, the governor of Bengal.

• Dewal Rani Khizr Khani entitled Ashiqa, narrates the romantic story of Khizr Khan, son of Alauddin Khilzi and Dewal Rani, the daughter of Rana Karan of Gujarat. Nuh Sipir is the poetic composition which deals with the region of Mubarak Shah Khilji, the successor of Alauddin Khilhji.

• Tughluq Nama was composed by Amir Khusrau to commemorate the victory of Ghisuddin Tughluq over Khurram Khan (1320 AD), leading to the establishment of a new ruling dynasty.

• Tarikh i Firoze Shahi - Ziauddin barani : This work preserves the history of the Delhi Sultanat for the period 1259 to 1352; it gives the histoy of nine rulers from Balban to Firoze Shah Tughluq. Barani's write up including the narrative of Firoze Tughluq, constitutes a standard a standard work of history, which establishes his reputation as premier historain of his age.

• Fatawa I Jahandari-Barani: It is a complementary volume to the Tarikh i Firoze Shahi. In this book, the author recapitulates and futher elaborates the political philosophy of the sultnate on the basis of his earlier narrative.

• Firoze Tughluq's Authobiography : Sultan Firoze Shan Tughluq has left a brochure of thirty two pages in autobiographical writing, called Futuhat i Firoze Shahi: it give a brief summary of his military compaigns, some of which failed to produce the desired results.

• Tarikh i Forize Shahi - Shams i Siraj Afif: The book is devoted exclusively to the reign of Firoze Tughluq and constitutes the most accurate and authentic contemporary account of his times. The book is unique in sense that it also describes the life and conditions of the people at large.

• Tuzuk i Mubarak Shahi - Yahaya bin Ahmed Sirhindi This is the only contemporary source discovered so far on the history of the Sayyad dynasty(1414-51). The book begins with the rise of the Ghori dynasty and the conquest of the northern India by the turns.

• Futuhus Salatin - Khwaja Abdullah Malik Isami This work was written in 1349-50, on the Turkish rule in India from the Ghaznavids to Muhmmad bin Tughluq.

• Kitab ur Rehla -Ibn batuttaIbn batutta was an Arab traveler and adventure frm Morocoo. His book is a primary source of history of the region of Muhmmad bin Tughluq it throws ligh on the socio-political condition of his times.

Historiography :The study and method of writing history is called historiography. Medieval India History was predominantly court centric and generally took no note of the world beyond the royal durbar. The noble courtiers used to account the history e.g. Abul Fazl's Akbarnama

Early Turkish Rulers (1206-1290) Qutbuddin Aibak 1206 - 1210 Shamsuddin 1210 - 1236 Raziya 1236 - 1240 Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266 - 1287

 

Early Medieval India (650-1206 AD)

North India and the Decan :
In the post Harsha period, three great centres of powers emerged in North India and Deccan: Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas.

Gurjara-Pratiharas The Gurjara-Pratiharas were the early Rajputs who began theri rule from Gujarat and south western Rajasthan. Later they ruled from Kanauj. Nagabhata I was the first great ruler of the dynasty. He defeated the Muslim forces of Arab. Bhoja I (AD 836-885) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha, which has been incorporated as a legend on some of his coins.

Palas The Pala dynasty came into power in Bengal in about the middle of the eighth century AD. The founder of this dynasty was Gopala I who was elected as the king by the people. Dharampala and Devapala were the most famous rulers of this dynasty. They extended and consolidated the Pala empire. The Palas ruled over Bihar, Bengal and part of Orissa and Assam with mny ups and down in their learning and religions. Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramshila, which became second only to Nalanda in fame as a centre for higher learning. During Devapals's reign, the king of Suvarnadvipa(South East Asia), Balaputradeva, built a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to endow the income of five villages for the maintenance of the monastery.

Rashtrakutas The Rashtrakutas called themselves descendants of Satyaki. The founder of the Rashtrakuta power was Dantivarma or Dantidurga who was a contemporary of Chalukya King Pulakeshin II. Dantidurga occupied all territories between the Godavari and the Vima.

      Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krishnaraja (768-772). Krishnaraja was responsible for the construction of the Kailash Temple of Ellora which stands as an excellent specimen of the Rastrakuta art and architecture.

Points to Remember

The Rashtrakutas kept on the best of terms with the Arabs of Sindh and enriched their subjects by encouraging commerce They encouraged Hinduism and Digambara Jainism Their capital was at Manyakheta The king Amonghavarsha I himself authored a part of Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada poem. Rashtrakutas were the followers of Jainism.

The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Amoghavarsha. Asa warrior, he was, however no match with his father Govinda II, but he succeeded in defeating the East-Chalukya kings. It was Amoghavarsha who had successfully arrested the progress of the Gurjara King Bhoja I towards South India.

Temples Constructed by Rashtrakutas
Temples	Place	Constructed By
Vijalaycholeshwar	Naratmatai	Vijayalaya
Balsubramaniyam	Kannanur	Aditaya I
Nageshwar	Kuminakanam	Aditaya I
Kornagnain	Sriniwasnallur	Vartak I
Moverkaite	Padukottai	Bhutivikram Kesiri
Tiruvaleswaram	Brahmadesha	Raj Raj I
Uttarkailash	Tiruvadi	Raj Raj I
Rajrajeshwar	Tanjore	Rajendra I
Gangaikondchola	Gangai Kondacholapuram	Rajendra I
Airavateshwar	Darsunam	Raj Raj II
Kamhaveshwar	Tirumaranam	Kallotunga III

Tripartite Struggle The most important event of post-Harsha Period was tripartite struggle among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutus and Palas for the supremacy of the north. This struggle started during the reign of Vatsaraja-Pratihara. He ascended the throne in 778 AD. In order to give practicle shape to his imperialist designs, Vatsaraja attacked Dharmpala, the Pala King of Bengal, and carried away his state umbrella.      The majore causes for the continuous struggle between the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakuta, known in history as tripartite struggle, are as follows:-

• To get control over Gujarat and Malwa, the regions very important for foreign trade due to their nearness to the coast.
• To acquire supremacy over kanauj, a symbol of prestige in Indian politics.
• To get control over the vast resources of the Gangetic valley.
• Desire to impress the pretty kingdoms with the sense of their might.
• Lust for war booty, a prominent source for maintaining huge army

Kashmir Kashmir was ruled by three dynasties- the Karkota, Utpala and Loharas. Lalitaditya was the most famous ruler of Kashmir during this period.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

Introduction : The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain in 1192 by Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori inaugurated an era of Muslim rule in India. The sudden death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 and his failure to specify succession procedures pitted his three slaves Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibek against each other.

The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as the "Period of the Sultan Rulers" . During this period, rulers belonging to five different dynasties- The Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodhis-ruled over India.

The Background of Delhi Sultanate

• First Muslim Invasion-Mohammad Bin Qasim's Invasion (712 AD) : Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded India in 712 AD and conquered Sindh which became the province of Omayyad Khilafat.
• First Turk Invasion-Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasion (998-1030 AD) :Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni led about 17 expeditions to India to enrich himself by taking away the wealth from India. In 1025 he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnath that lies on the coast in the extreme south of Kathiwar. The temple was destroyed in 1026 AD.
• Second Turk Invasion-Mohammad Ghori's Invasion (1175-1206 AD) :Mohammad Ghori invaded India and laid the foundation of the Muslim domination in India. He may be considered the founder of muslim rule in India.
• Reasons for the Sucess of Turks in India :
1. Rajputs lacked unity and organisation;divided by rivalaries
2. There was no central government
3. Kingdoms were small and scattered
4. Turks were better organised and took advantage of the lack of mutual cooperation among the Rajputs.

Mohammad Ghori's conquests became the nucleus of a new political entity in India-the Delhi Sultnate. This period can be divided into 5 distint periods viz

1. The Slave dynasty (1206-1290)
2. The Khijli Dynasty (1290-1320)
3. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
4. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)
5. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)

Modern India

Stories of India's wealth from travellers and other sources tempted the European nations to discover the sea route to India for trade. The Portuguese were the pioneers in this effort. In 1498, Vasco de Gama discovered the sea route to India and reached Calicut(now Kolkata). His discovery made the Portuguese to be the first among the European nations to trade with India and found settlements along the coasts. Following them were the Dutch, the English, the Danes and the French. Eventually the English and the French were left in the field to contend for the Indian Trade. Not content with trade only their ambitions took a turn to achieve political power and the conditions that followed the decline of Mughal Empire offered them a golden opportunity to fish in the troubled waters.